While this battle is often characterized as “Phonics” versus “Whole Word,” I think it's more accurate to describe the two methodologies as “Bottom-Up” versus “Top-Down.” (Alternatively, “Parts-to-Whole” versus “Whole-to-Parts”). The goal is to have the children memorize the word as having a particular shape or contour, rather than to decode the word based on individual letter sounds. However, what takes its place is not the Synthetic Phonics championed by both Flesch and Chall. Here instruction starts, not with whole words, but with the most basic sounds in English, called phonemes. It is therefore misguided to pit the intellectual freedom of a child against rigorous drill. William S. Gray of the University of Chicago is named the first president. [6] Jeanne Chall, Learning to Read: The Great Debate, Updated ed. At the end of the 16-week program, the group taught by synthetic phonics were: (a) reading words seven months ahead of the other two groups, (b) reading seven months ahead for their chronological age, (c) spelling eight to nine months ahead of the other groups. “Systematic phonics instruction makes a bigger contribution to children’s growth in reading than alternative programs providing unsystematic or no phonics instruction.” (2-92), “The hallmark of systematic phonics programs is that they delineate a planned, sequential set of phonic elements [letter-sound correspondences] and that they teach these elements explicitly… A key feature that distinguishes systematic phonics instruction from nonsystematic phonics is in the identification of a full array of letter-sound correspondences to be taught. Readings in Reading Instruction: Its History, Theory, and Development. With instructional roots dating back to early common schools (see historical time line), phonics involves The researcher examined the trends from the 1600s to the present and identified the type of reading instruction she had during first grade. Writing in, “That it will be the part of wisdom to curtail phonetic instruction in the first grade very greatly is strongly implied; indeed, it is not improbable, Logically enough, this Whole Word method becomes known as, “Memorizing or guessing the meaning of whole words is not reading; on the contrary, it is an acquired bad habit that stands in the way of your child’s ever learning to read properly… My advice is, teach your child yourself how to read.” [5], “The results are better, not only in terms of the mechanical aspect of literacy alone, but also in terms of the ultimate goals of reading instruction – comprehension and possibly even speed of reading. They found Rev. [2] James Fassett, The New Beacon Primer (New York: Ginn and Company, 1921), 121. The gain in spelling was 4.5-fold, improving from seven months to one year and nine months ahead of chronological age. Instead, they read at a "basic" level or they're functionally illiterate. Three years later, gobsmacked Californians find they are ranked at the very bottom (just behind Mississippi). See above for a sampling from a “story” from this series, whose main purpose is to drill sight words. Recognizing that skilled, educated readers have a sight word vocabulary of 60,000 or more words, and that such a feat would be impossible via rote-memorization or via guessing based on context, Jorm and Share propose that only the independent decoding of unknown words could explain the ability of skilled readers. Here’s an excerpt: In 1927, a nationally known educator, Dr. Arthur Gates, from Teachers College at Columbia University, joins the Whole Word movement. Noah Webster was an American school teacher. View Timeline. For 20 minutes per day, children were taught either: (a) by a synthetic phonics program, or (b) by an analytic phonics program, or (c) by an analytic phonics plus phonological-awareness training program. All teaching efforts should be initially focused on a single goal: the grasp of the alphabetic principle whereby each letter or grapheme represents a phoneme… Children need to understand that only the analysis of letters one by one will allow them to discover a word’s identity.” (p228). The sounds are taught in isolation then blended together. They found that phonics was more effective in teaching children to read and spell than the whole word method. [Note: my separate blog on the Simple View can be found here.]. Contrasted with the above approval of systematic phonics, blending (with letters), and segmenting (with letters), the Panel presents a strong critique of Whole Language: “Beginning reading programs that do not teach phonics explicitly and systematically may be of several types. He made an elaborate word count as a basis for determining which words, due to frequent use, deserved emphasis in the teaching of reading and spelling. Looking back over the 26 years since he published his first book, he criticizes analytic phonics as being “a minimum of phonics, served up in a look-and-say sauce of context clues and guesswork.” [7]. At that time, reading material was not specially written for children but consisted primarily of the Bible and some patriotic essays; the most influential early textbook was The New England Primer, published late 1680s. This seems to have been the common method of reading instruction from Classical times through the Middle Ages when a prime purpose of schools was to learn to read Latin. A Brief History of Reading website. the four principles set out below, whereas other approaches, such as 'analytic' phonics, expect children to deduce them.” (section 47), “The sum of these represent 'high quality phonic work'… High quality phonic work is not a ‘strategy’ so much as a body of knowledge, skills and understanding that has to be learned. 1500 Making cloth is the main industry in Reading. John Locke (1632-1704) was an early advocate that school should be a pleasant place to learn. Reading Instruction Timeline Learning to read for most students is not something that comes naturally. Reading Science, with more clarity now than it has ever had regarding reading instruction, can’t afford to lose this battle; far too much is at stake. She concludes that "code emphasis," her term for synthetic phonics, produces better results than the Look/Say method in the teaching of beginning reading. 1993: The National Assessment of Educational Progress [16], a federal study doing a state-by-state comparison of reading proficiency, ranks California fourth-graders fifth from the bottom among the fifty states. This process must be taught explicitly. History Of Reading Instruction : A Book About A Dog Named Pug 1144 Words | 5 Pages. Because this report is such a thorough rejection of 25 years of Whole Language methodology, I think it best to allow the Panel members to speak for themselves. [18] Linnea Ehri, “Grapheme-Phoneme Knowledge is Essential for Learning to Read Words in English” in Word Recognition in Beginning Literacy (Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 1998). 1987: Educational leaders in California, through the state’s English/Language Arts Framework, institute a large-scale, statewide adoption of Whole Language as the method for teaching beginning reading in the state’s grade schools. (The full study can be found here.). The Elementary and Secondary Education Act has seen numerous changes in its 50-year history. (n.d.). With the English language constantly changing … History of Reading Instruction A history of reading instruction, how whole language got started, phonics landmarks, and a timeline showing significant events in the battle between whole language and phonetic reading methods. This re-emphasizes the importance of knowing grapheme/phoneme correspondences and being able to blend (decode) unknown words by sounding them out. Finally, an unfamiliar word is to be identified, not by sounding it out, but by “asking somebody what the word is” – or by guessing what the word might be using context or “similarity to words that are already known.” [12]. When PA training involves teaching students to pronounce the sounds associated with letters and to blend the sounds to form words, it qualifies as synthetic phonics. As a solution, Flesch pushed for the use of the phonics method, the teaching of reading by teaching learners to sound out words using rules. [1] William McGuffey, The Eclectic Manual of Methods (New York: Van Antwerp, Bragg, & Co, 1885), 24-26. They were used to teach children to read from the 1930s-1970s. The reason I don’t like calling this battle “Phonics” versus “Whole Word” is there are several types of phonics that are top-down in their orientation. Focus was on reading for meaning. In an interview with NPR, Seidenberg adds: “The Reading Wars are over, and science lost.” I think, however, this statement may be a bit of hyperbole. Saved by Prezi. Long before educational psychology became a formal discipline, scholars were concerned about what people think and do as they teach and learn. 1967: Jeanne Chall’s book, Learning to Read: The Great Debate is published. They offered a balanced, integrated program of learning activities and learning materials. With the single exception of England, the landscape for beginning reading instruction worldwide is disheartening: Balanced Literacy, lists of sight words to be memorized, three-cueing, guessing from pictures, guessing from a word’s first letter, guessing what might make sense, invented spellings, reading levels, learning styles, “predictable” books, and, of course, “discovery” learning. It concludes that “systematic” phonics, not Whole Language, is the best method for teaching beginning readers – and that such phonics must be taught explicitly, rather than on a “discovery” or “as-needed” basis. First, it rejects the boring, artificial, and repetitive readers of the Look/Say era, claiming to replace those readers with real children’s stories. The bulk of reading instruction, on which nearly all subsequent learning is based, should be over by the end of second grade. ), It may surprise some readers to find out that the battle between various top-down methods and synthetic phonics has been going on since the mid-nineteenth century. The flaw of this method, according to Flesch, was that it required brute force memorization with no theory behind it so that when confronted with an unknown word, the reader would become confused. He found that the best spelling results were obtained where the phonics method was taught because of how the brain decodes words. The effect the printing press had on reading instruction was the invention of books. Innovation, NCLB, and the Fear Factor: The Challenge of Leading 21st-Century Schools in an Era of Accountability, I Internacional y primeras asociaciones socialistas, Το έθιμο του Χριστουγεννιάτικου δέντρου στην Ελλάδα, Cronología de Juan Domingo Perón (1943-1955), Presidentes de México (Linea de tiempo 1940 a la actualidad), Antecedentes históricos del proceso salud enfermedad, Evolución de la literatura a través del tiempo, Linea del tiempo del período del porfiriato en México, Científicos contribuyentes a la Teoría Celular, Avances tecnológicos desde 1970 hasta el 2017, AÑO DE PUBLICACIÓN DE CUENTOS INFANTILES Y SUS AUTORES, See more Science and Technology timelines, http://www.mcguffeyreaders.com/1836_theoriginal.htm. These methods of teaching phonics existed long before they became identified as forms of phonemic awareness training. Share calls these twin co-requisites the sine qua non of reading acquisition [15]. 1955: In a We-Better-Circle-the-Wagons response to the Flesch book, the education establishment and textbook publishers create the International Reading Association (later rebranded as the International Literacy Association). The effort is real, but the payoff in independence is immediate when children discover, often with awe, that they can decode words they never learned in class.” (p227), “Performance is best when children are, from the beginning, directly taught the mapping of letters onto speech sounds. Regardless of their social background, children who do not learn this suffer from reading delays.” (p227), “The punch line is quite simple: we know that conversion of letters into sounds is the key stage in reading acquisition. HISTORY. ), and then spelled and recited each word of the printed prayer (see. 1973: Various researchers propose a Dual Route model for turning print into speech. In 1997, Congress approved the creation of a National Reading Panel (NRP) to initiate a national, comprehensive, research-based effort on alternative instructional approaches to reading instruction and to guide the development of … This method pays no attention to elementary sounds and diacritical marks. [13] Ken Goodman, “Reading: A Psycholinguistic Guessing Game,” Journal of the Reading Specialist, May (1967): 127. These evolved over time to include content areas of science and history … Paper was expensive and scarce so teachers had to be creative. Mann disagreed with phonics-based instruction. 1930 – 1965: Whole Word becomes the dominant top-down method for teaching reading in the United States. (2-99) This makes it easy (and utterly predictable) for what happens next: supporters of Whole Language agree to embrace some ineffective top-down phonics, and they change the name of their method to Balanced Literacy. The hornbook was an ABC "book" with only one page and it looked like a wooden paddle. Children will discover the necessary letter/sound relationships as they read books and express themselves in writing, using their invented spellings. Phonics instruction is integrated into these activities but taught incidentally as teachers decide it is needed.” (2-90), “Whole Language teachers typically provide some instruction in phonics, usually as part of invented spelling activities or through the use of grapheme-to-phoneme prompts during reading. 1900 - 1950. [7] Rudolf Flesch, Why Johnny Still Can’t Read (New York: Harper & Row, 1981), 5. Both are to be done “with letters.” The Panel does not endorse any type of “advanced” oral-only PA exercises such as phoneme deletion or phoneme substitution. I remember calling the words with concentration and focus, See Pug run. Needless, easily avoidable suffering should be an affront to everyone. It must aim to lay down an efficient neuronal hierarchy, so that the child can recognize letters and graphemes and easily turn them into speech sounds. In Whole Language programs, the emphasis is upon meaning-based reading and writing activities. From this point on, reading instruction in England starts to diverge from that of the rest of the English-speaking world. The Panel addresses this fallacy directly. Whole word instruction was used along with phonics as supplemental instruction. Unlike the NRP however, the Australian study lays blame for the Whole Language disaster, pointing its finger directly at a philosophy of knowledge called Constructivism: “Essentially, the whole-language approach to teaching and learning reflects a constructivist philosophy of learning in which children are viewed as inherently active, self-regulating learners who construct knowledge for themselves, with little or no explicit decoding instruction.” (p28), “Constructivism is a mixture of Piagetian stage theory with postmodernist ideology that is devoid of evidence-based justification for its adoption as an effective method of teaching… Too many faculties and schools of education in Australian higher education institutions currently providing pre-service teacher education base their programs on constructivist views of teaching.” (pp29-30), “At the same time as constructivist approaches have been promoted, direct teaching methods have been overtly or covertly criticized and dismissed as inappropriate, with the suggestion that they simply don’t work and are dull and boring for learners. The Speller was arranged so that it could be easily taught to students, and it progressed by age. Reading comprehension - establish that you can draw the most important information from the related lesson on the history of reading instruction Throughout history, reading and writing has been part of people's lives in one way or another. Reading Teachers and Parents – My bottom-up Synthetic Phonics books are available, absolutely FREE (with no strings attached) right here. From work considered by this review, the balance of advantage favors teaching it discretely as the prime approach to establishing word recognition. Instead, the Whole Word (top-down) method is reaffirmed as a new model for teaching reading appears. Webster thought that Americans should learn from American books, so he wrote a three volume series, A Grammatical Institute of the English Language. The result: Balanced Literacy. Among other strengths, this is because it teaches children directly what they need to know, i.e. The synthetic-phonics-taught group also read irregular words better than the other groups and was the only group that could read unfamiliar words by analogy. The first reader introduced children to his ethical code with 55 lessons. When words are regular, rare, or novel, we preferentially process them using a ‘phonological route,’ in which we first convert the letter string into a pronunciation, and then attempt to access the meaning of the sound pattern (if any). Quite the opposite is the case.” (2-94), Unfortunately, the Panel’s 14 experts are themselves divided on many matters of importance in reading instruction. From work considered by this review, the balance of advantage favors teaching it discretely as the. As children attempt to use written Language for communication, they will discover naturally what they need to know about letter-sound relationships and how letters function in reading and writing.” (2-102). One starts with the final product (a whole word) and then may (or may not) eventually get down to the phoneme-grapheme level; the other starts with phonemes and graphemes and then builds up to a whole word. However, the Panel’s multiple recommendations in support of systematic phonics can’t simply be ignored – many parents and legislators are clamoring for a “return to phonics.” What happens is that the name, “Whole Language,” vanishes from the education scene and from education journals. 1998: Reading researcher Linnea Ehri proposes four phases of sight word learning [18]. The model states succinctly: RC = D x LC. View an interactive timeline showing milestones since the ESEA's passage in 1965. Dick and Jane were popular basal readers written by William S. Gray and Zerna Sharp. 1997 – 2000: The US Congress convenes a National Reading Panel with the mandate to examine all reputable scientific research available on how to teach children to read, and then to determine the most effective method. (2-33), "It is important to note that when PA is taught with letters, it qualifies as phonics instruction. ), The only bottom-up method that exists is a specific type of phonics called Synthetic Phonics. The sound is first taught, and then the character which represents it; the spoken word is learned, and then its written and printed form. (2-34). [3] Edmund Huey, The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading (1908; reprint, Cambridge: M.I.T. Educators use our materials to supplement the curriculum, to inform their practices, and to create civil and inclusive school communities where children are respected, valued and welcome participants. “ob,” “ub,” etc. A Brief History of Reading First. [11] Frank Smith, Reading Without Nonsense, 3 ed. For the past four centuries, reading instruction has been the core of learning. The primer and books one through three emphasized"learning to read". Teachers were receiving formal training in "normal schools." Teaching Reading: A History. This coding can be carried out independently of any consideration of the meaning or familiarity of the letter sequence, as in the pronunciation of previously unencountered sequences, such as flitch, mantiness and streep. Explore our HISTORY. According to Goodman, “matching letters with sounds is a flat-earth view of the world, since it rejects modern science about reading and writing and how they develop.” [10] Frank Smith is just as adamant: “Reliance on phonics – or spelling-to-sound correspondence – is dysfunctional in fluent reading and interferes with learning to read.” [11], Third, writing is emphasized at the earliest stages of learning to read, even if it requires, as it must, “invented spelling.” Fourth, learning to read is to be as easy and natural as learning to speak. Blending and segmenting instruction showed a much larger effect size on reading than multiple-skill instruction did." Few reading teachers are conversant with such essential topics as the, Take a look at the cost in the picture below (copied from an internet advertisement) for a, [4] Arthur Gates, “Studies of Phonetic Training in Beginning Reading,”, [13] Ken Goodman, “Reading: A Psycholinguistic Guessing Game,”, [17] Nicholas Lemann, “The Reading Wars,”, [18] Linnea Ehri, “Grapheme-Phoneme Knowledge is Essential for Learning to Read Words in English” in. Because this report is such a thorough rejection of 25 years of Whole Language methodology, I think it best to allow the Panel members to speak for themselves. [Future IRA presidents will include such noteworthy names as Kenneth Goodman (1981), co-founder of Whole Language (see below), and Marie S. Clay (1992), founder of Reading Recovery.]. Obviously, this procedure would work only for familiar words.”, “That was due to the Dewey revolt in the Twenties in which they threw out phonics and went to word recognition, as if you’re reading Chinese pictographs instead of blending sounds of different letters. Joseph Rice found that phonics led to better results in reading than word methods. The study closely follows the lead of the US National Reading Panel in that it rejects Whole Language and, in its place, recommends systematic phonics. The teacher would pronunce the words to the students and the students were required to memorize and recite readings. He believed in the "tabula rasa" theory whereby a student had a mind like a blank sheet with nothing printed initially. 1900 – 1930: A transitional period. This is because successful phonic work for word recognition is a time-limited activity that is eventually overtaken by work that develops comprehension.” (sections 52-53). 1983: Reading researchers David Share and Anthony Jorm propose their Self-Teaching Hypothesis (further elaborated in 1995 by Share). It also concludes that the best time to teach phonics is in kindergarten or first grade (the traditional start of formal reading instruction), before a child starts to read by other means. (d) spelling seven months ahead for their chronological age. Note: Balanced Literacy is described in detail in another blog on this site. The occurrences, which begin at 500 BC, are from various countries and come forward with the concentration then being set in America pertaining to the changes that began to alter successful instruction. Similar materials are marketed by Heinemann for each of grades K through 6. The book inspired Dr. Seuss to write The Cat in the Hat. Top-down methods start instruction with whole words – typically called “sight words.” The child rote-memorizes a cache of such words based on their visual characteristics rather than on the sound value of their individual letters. There are presumably two alternative ways in which this coding can be assigned. 1800 – 1900: Most children who learn to read during the 19th century are taught from either Noah Webster’s Blue-Backed Speller or from the famous McGuffey Readers. He found that the best spelling results were obtained where the phonic method was used. I am not aware of other texts that present research in the field of literacy in a chronological manner. Timeline of Primary Methods of Reading Instruction from Colonial Times to the Present. 1981: Rudolf Flesch publishes Why Johnny Still Can’t Read, again condemning the Whole Word method, as well as the analytic phonics that it now includes. “Education is a multi-billion-dollar industry involving multiple stakeholders – governments, business, educators, parents, children, taxpayers, unions, interest groups – whose perspectives and interests often conflict.” (p11). If a child is to learn quickly and well, he must be given well-structured grapheme-phoneme instruction. 1915. Measuring literacy rates. Edward Thorndike composed three different word books to assist teachers with word and reading instruction. Developed by Kenneth Goodman and Frank Smith in the 1970’s, Whole Language differs from Look/Say in some fundamental ways. History of Reading Instruction My earliest memories of learning to read come from first grade and a book about a dog named Pug. The History of Reading Instruction Timeline 2000-2006 1990-1999 Research- Continued vocabulary and comprehension New Writing-to-Learn criticisms of No Child Left Behind Student Experience- probably not being asked to use writing to engage in learning getting training in phonemic The message that most teachers appear to have absorbed is that all direct teaching is old-fashioned and should be abandoned in favor of student-centered enquiry and activity-based learning.” (p37), My favorite quote from the Report, however, is this: “In sum, the incontrovertible finding from the extensive body of local and international evidence-based literacy research is that for children during the early years of schooling to be able to link their knowledge of spoken language to their knowledge of written language, they must first master the alphabetic code – the system of grapheme-phoneme correspondences that link written words to their pronunciations. 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